At its Independence in 1947, India’s borders with neighbouring countries were not uniformly defined and were at various stages of evolution. While some boundaries had been physically demarcated on the ground, others were only outlined on maps, and some were undefined. Despite being aware of these discrepancies, India’s early political leadership did not prioritise securing and delineating the country’s borders in the initial years post-independence. This lack of urgency led to persistent challenges, compounded by disputes over territory and the existence of different types of borders due to diverse historical, political, social, and economic factors.
For example, the India-China border is often described as a “hard” boundary. Social, cultural, and economic interactions across this border were officially severed following the Sino-Indian War of 1962, and even today, cross-border interactions remain minimal. Limited exchanges occur only through controlled mechanisms, such as regulated border trade and the pilgrimage routes to Kailash Mansarovar.
In recent years, tensions along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Ladakh have escalated, underscoring the contentious nature of India-China relations. A brutal clash in the Galwan Valley in June 2020 led to the loss of 20 Indian soldiers, while China, as is often its practice, withheld details of its casualties. Such incidents highlight the ongoing volatility along the border.
China has significantly bolstered its military infrastructure in areas bordering India, constructing at least ten new airbases in regions such as Ladakh, Uttarakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh. In response, India has ramped up its infrastructure development along the border to enhance troop mobility and strengthen defense capabilities. The Indian government has focused on constructing 90 strategically significant projects, including roads, bridges, and tunnels, along the tense border. To facilitate the swift deployment of troops and artillery, India has also invested in building an all-weather strategic road network. The expected budget for improving connectivity in these critical regions is approximately ₹1.4 trillion.
India’s efforts to enhance border connectivity include the construction of one of Asia’s longest two-way tunnels. This tunnel, which surpasses the nearly 11-kilometer Chennai-Nashri tunnel in Jammu and Kashmir, reduces the distance between Baltal and Minamarg from 27 kilometres to just 13 kilometres by cutting through mountainous terrain. The tunnel, measuring 9.5 meters in height and 7.57 meters in breadth, represents a significant achievement in engineering.
Additionally, work is progressing on the 6.5-kilometre Z-Morh tunnel, which will connect Gagangeer and Sonamarg, a scenic hill station located approximately 80 kilometres northeast of Srinagar. This project, being constructed by Apco Infratech at an estimated cost of ₹23 billion, is expected to significantly enhance accessibility in the region. The Ladakh Administration and the Border Roads Organization (BRO) have also signed a memorandum of understanding to further improve connectivity in the hilly terrain. Five major projects, including greenfield road preparation, double-lane road upgrades, and tunnel construction, are currently underway.
Other notable projects include the upgrade of four key single-lane roads and the construction of the Hamboting La tunnel to provide a smoother journey between Kargil and Batalik. The Khalse-Shyok road (70 kilometres) and Tangste-Lukung road (31 kilometres) are being developed to bolster strategic connectivity. Additionally, remote Aryan villages such as Dah, Garkone, Darchik, and Hundar in the Nubra Valley will be more accessible through this expanding network.
The Border Roads Organization (BRO) has accomplished remarkable feats, including the construction of the world’s highest blacktop road at 5,883 meters above sea level in Eastern Ladakh. This 52-kilometer road through the Umling La Pass breaks the previous record held by Bolivia’s road at 5,777 meters. Such projects underscore India’s commitment to enhancing its border infrastructure despite challenging terrain and extreme weather conditions.
India is also focusing on bolstering its air power in the region. Air bases are being developed at Daulat Beg Oldi, Fukche, and Nyoma in eastern Ladakh. These bases will host advanced fighter aircraft, including French-made Rafale jets and Russian MiG-29s. The delivery of 36 Rafale jets, worth approximately ₹580 billion, was expedited, with the first five aircraft arriving in July 2020. This acquisition enhances India’s air combat capabilities, providing a significant edge in the event of conflict.
The intensification of infrastructure development along the India-China border gained momentum after the Indian government’s decision in 2019 to revoke the semi-autonomous status of Jammu and Kashmir and bifurcate it into two union territories: Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh. This move drew sharp criticism from China, which accused India of unilaterally altering the status quo in the region. Since then, accusations of territorial incursions have increased on both sides, with frequent reports of standoffs along the LAC.
Despite an agreement signed in 1996 prohibiting the use of firearms and explosives along the border, tensions remain high. The clashes in Ladakh in 2020 marked the most significant escalation since the 73-day Doklam standoff in Bhutan in 2017. In the aftermath of the Galwan Valley clash, both nations deployed tens of thousands of troops along the LAC. As of now, approximately 60,000 soldiers from each side remain stationed in the region, making it one of the most militarized borders in the world.
Challenges and Future Prospects
While India has made significant progress in improving border infrastructure, challenges persist. In 2023, the BRO completed 118 infrastructure projects, including roads, tunnels, and bridges, furthering accessibility and defence readiness in remote regions. However, some newly constructed border posts have faced criticism for not meeting quality and livability standards. Moreover, there is growing concern within the Indian military about the possibility of facing simultaneous conflicts on two fronts—with China and Pakistan.
China, on its part, appears to view the border dispute not merely as a matter of friction but as an issue of sovereignty. Beijing’s aggressive stance includes attempts to reclaim areas it deems historically part of its territory, further complicating the situation.
Conclusion
India’s recent focus on infrastructure development along its border with China reflects a broader strategic imperative to counterbalance Chinese advancements. While significant progress has been made with the construction of roads, tunnels, and airbases, much remains to be done to ensure that India’s border infrastructure is robust enough to meet future challenges. The need for continued investment in connectivity, combined with diplomatic efforts to manage tensions, is critical as India navigates its complex relationship with China and works to safeguard its territorial integrity.
